The Civil War: War Between the North and South

Name the U.S. war between the North and the South. The Civil War or the War Between the States. This war was fought from 1861 to 1865 between the Northern states (the Union) and the Southern states (the Confederacy). The fundamental cause was slavery—Southern states wanted to preserve slavery, while Northern states increasingly opposed it. The war resulted in over 620,000 deaths, ended slavery, preserved the Union, and transformed America into a unified nation.

For the citizenship test, you need to know that the Civil War (or War Between the States) was the war between the North and South.

The Essential Facts

For the citizenship test, remember: The Civil War (or the War Between the States) was the war between the North and the South.

Key facts about the Civil War:

When: 1861-1865 (4 years)
The Sides: Union (North) vs. Confederacy (South)
President: Abraham Lincoln led the Union
Main Cause: Slavery
Outcome: Union victory; slavery abolished
Casualties: About 620,000-750,000 soldiers died
Result: Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery; Union preserved

The Civil War was America’s bloodiest war and most important domestic event.

The Two Sides

The Civil War divided the nation:

The Union (North):

• 23 states remained in the Union
• Led by President Abraham Lincoln
• Population: about 22 million
• Advantages: More people, factories, railroads, navy
• Goal: Preserve the Union; later, end slavery
• Army: United States Army, wore blue uniforms

The Confederacy (South):

• 11 states seceded to form the Confederate States of America
• Led by President Jefferson Davis
• Population: about 9 million (including 3.5 million enslaved people)
• Advantages: Military tradition, fighting on home territory, talented generals
• Goal: Independence and preservation of slavery
• Army: Confederate Army, wore gray uniforms

The Confederate States:

1. South Carolina (first to secede, December 1860)
2. Mississippi
3. Florida
4. Alabama
5. Georgia
6. Louisiana
7. Texas
8. Virginia
9. Arkansas
10. North Carolina
11. Tennessee

Border States:
Four slave states stayed in the Union: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri. Keeping these states was crucial to Union strategy.

Why the War Started

The fundamental cause was slavery:

Slavery:
By 1860, about 4 million people were enslaved in the South. The Southern economy, especially cotton production, depended on enslaved labor. Southern states wanted to preserve and expand slavery.

Northern states had abolished slavery and increasingly viewed it as immoral. While not all Northerners supported abolition, opposition to slavery’s expansion was widespread.

States’ Rights:
Southern states claimed they had the right to leave the Union. They argued states were sovereign and could secede. The North argued the Union was permanent and secession was illegal.

In practice, “states’ rights” meant the right to maintain slavery. When states’ rights conflicted with slavery (like enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act), Southern states supported federal power.

Election of 1860:
Abraham Lincoln won the presidency without carrying a single Southern state. Lincoln opposed slavery’s expansion. Southern states feared he would eventually abolish slavery (though Lincoln initially only opposed expansion, not abolition where it existed).

Secession:
After Lincoln’s election, Southern states began seceding. South Carolina seceded in December 1860. By Lincoln’s inauguration (March 1861), seven states had seceded and formed the Confederacy.

Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861):
Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a federal fort in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. This started the war. Lincoln called for troops to suppress the rebellion. Four more states then seceded.

The war was about whether the Union would survive and whether slavery would continue.

Major Battles and Events

The war involved thousands of battles:

Early War (1861-1862):

First Battle of Bull Run (July 1861):
First major battle. Confederates won, shocking Northerners who expected quick victory.

Battle of Shiloh (April 1862):
First large-scale battle with horrific casualties. Union victory but at tremendous cost.

Seven Days Battles (June-July 1862):
Confederate General Robert E. Lee drove Union forces away from Confederate capital Richmond.

Second Battle of Bull Run (August 1862):
Another Confederate victory.

Middle War (1862-1863):

Battle of Antietam (September 1862):
Bloodiest single day in American history—about 23,000 casualties. Technically a draw but strategic Union victory. Lee’s invasion of the North was stopped. Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation afterward.

Battle of Fredericksburg (December 1862):
Devastating Confederate victory; Union suffered terrible losses.

Battle of Chancellorsville (May 1863):
Lee’s greatest victory, but Confederate General “Stonewall” Jackson was mortally wounded by friendly fire.

Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863):
Turning point of the war. Lee invaded Pennsylvania. Union forces under General George Meade defeated him after three days of fierce fighting. About 51,000 total casualties. Lee never again invaded the North.

Siege of Vicksburg (May-July 1863):
Union General Ulysses S. Grant captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River and splitting the Confederacy.

Late War (1863-1865):

Battle of Chattanooga (November 1863):
Union victory opened the way to invade the Deep South.

Wilderness Campaign (May-June 1864):
Series of brutal battles in Virginia. Grant’s strategy was attrition—wearing down Lee’s army even at heavy cost.

Sherman’s March to the Sea (November-December 1864):
General William T. Sherman’s forces marched from Atlanta to Savannah, destroying military and civilian resources to break Southern will to fight.

Siege of Petersburg (June 1864-April 1865):
Grant besieged Petersburg and Richmond for nine months, eventually forcing Lee to abandon the cities.

Appomattox Court House (April 9, 1865):
Lee surrendered to Grant, effectively ending the war. Other Confederate forces surrendered over the following weeks.

The Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Lincoln’s proclamation transformed the war:

Issued: January 1, 1863

What It Did:
Declared enslaved people in Confederate territory to be free. Did not apply to border states or Union-controlled Confederate areas.

Impact:

• Changed the war’s purpose from preserving the Union to ending slavery
• Prevented European powers (especially Britain and France) from supporting the Confederacy
• Allowed Black men to join the Union army
• About 200,000 Black soldiers and sailors served in Union forces

The Emancipation Proclamation made the Civil War a war for freedom.

The War’s End

The war concluded in 1865:

Lincoln’s Second Inaugural (March 1865):
Lincoln called for “malice toward none” and “charity for all,” seeking to reunite the nation peacefully.

Lee’s Surrender (April 9, 1865):
Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Grant offered generous terms—Confederate soldiers could go home and would not be prosecuted for treason.

Other Surrenders:
Other Confederate armies surrendered over the following weeks. The war was over.

Lincoln’s Assassination (April 14, 1865):
Five days after Lee’s surrender, John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, assassinated President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington. Lincoln died April 15, 1865. His assassination deprived the nation of his leadership during Reconstruction.

Final Toll:
About 620,000-750,000 soldiers died (recent research suggests higher numbers). Countless civilians died. Cities, farms, and infrastructure were destroyed, especially in the South. The war was America’s bloodiest conflict.

Consequences of the War

The Civil War transformed America:

Slavery Abolished:
The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) permanently abolished slavery throughout the United States. Over 4 million enslaved people gained freedom.

Union Preserved:
The United States remained one nation. The principle that states could not secede was established. Federal government supremacy over states was confirmed.

Reconstruction (1865-1877):
The period after the war attempted to integrate freed people into society and rebuild the South. This period had mixed results—legal equality was achieved but genuine social and economic equality was not.

Constitutional Amendments:

• Thirteenth Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery
• Fourteenth Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and equal protection
• Fifteenth Amendment (1870): Protected voting rights regardless of race

These “Reconstruction Amendments” fundamentally changed the Constitution.

Economic Changes:

• The South’s plantation economy was destroyed
• The North’s industrial economy grew stronger
• National banking and currency systems were established
• The federal government’s power expanded

Political Changes:

• Republican Party dominated national politics for decades
• Southern states eventually returned to the Union
• Federal power over states increased

Social Changes:

• Four million people transitioned from slavery to freedom
• Southern social order was overturned
• Racial tensions and violence continued for generations

Long-Term Impact:
The Civil War created a unified nation with a strong federal government. It ended slavery but did not end racism or achieve genuine equality—struggles that continue today.

Famous Figures

Many famous Americans emerged from the Civil War:

Union Leaders:

• Abraham Lincoln: President who preserved the Union and ended slavery
• Ulysses S. Grant: Union general who won the war; later president
• William T. Sherman: Union general whose “March to the Sea” devastated the South
• Frederick Douglass: Former slave who advocated for Black soldiers and emancipation

Confederate Leaders:

• Jefferson Davis: Confederate president
• Robert E. Lee: Confederate general, most respected Southern military leader
• Stonewall Jackson: Talented Confederate general killed at Chancellorsville

Other Notable Figures:

• Harriet Tubman: Helped enslaved people escape via Underground Railroad; served as Union spy and scout
• Clara Barton: Nurse who later founded the American Red Cross
• Abraham Lincoln’s wife Mary Todd Lincoln: First Lady who lost three sons and her husband

Why It’s Called the “Civil War”

The war has different names:

Civil War:
Most common name. A civil war is fought between factions within one country. This was a civil war because both sides were American.

War Between the States:
Some prefer this name, emphasizing it was between state governments. This is also acceptable for the citizenship test.

The War of the Rebellion:
Union term emphasizing Southern states rebelled against legitimate government.

The War of Northern Aggression:
Some Southerners used this term, claiming the North attacked the South. This is not historically accurate—the Confederacy fired first at Fort Sumter.

The War for Southern Independence:
Confederate term emphasizing their goal of becoming independent.

For the citizenship test, use “Civil War” or “War Between the States.” Both are correct.

Regional Differences That Caused War

The North and South had fundamental differences:

Economy:

• North: Industrial, manufacturing, diverse economy
• South: Agricultural, plantation-based, dependent on cotton and slavery

Labor:

• North: Free labor (though workers faced harsh conditions)
• South: Enslaved labor producing cotton, tobacco, rice

Society:

• North: More urban, diverse immigrant population
• South: Rural, hierarchical, dominated by planter elite

Values:

• North: Increasingly viewed slavery as immoral
• South: Defended slavery as economically necessary and morally acceptable

Politics:

• North: Supported protective tariffs, federal improvements
• South: Opposed tariffs, favored states’ rights

These differences made compromise increasingly difficult. Slavery was the fundamental division that could not be compromised.

The War’s Legacy Today

The Civil War’s legacy continues:

Memorials:
Battlefields, monuments, and museums across the country preserve Civil War history. Gettysburg National Military Park attracts millions of visitors.

Controversies:
Confederate monuments and symbols remain controversial. Debates continue about how to remember the war and the Confederacy.

Racial Issues:
While slavery ended, racial inequality persisted through Jim Crow, segregation, and ongoing discrimination. The Civil War began addressing racial injustice but did not complete the work.

Federal Power:
The war established federal supremacy over states. This affects debates about federalism today.

National Identity:
The war created a unified nation. “United States” became singular (not “these United States are” but “the United States is”). Americans became one people, not just a collection of states.

Connections That Matter

Understanding the Civil War connects to the Emancipation Proclamation and Thirteenth Amendment. These ended slavery, fulfilling the war’s purpose.

The Civil War relates to Reconstruction and the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. These amendments attempted to achieve equality for freed people.

The war also connects to American federalism and states’ rights. The war established that states cannot secede and that federal authority supersedes state authority on fundamental issues.

For more on the Civil War, see our articles on the Emancipation Proclamation, Abraham Lincoln, and Reconstruction Amendments in the uscis-questions category. To understand causes, read about slavery and American expansion. To learn about consequences, explore articles on Reconstruction and civil rights.

Top 10 Frequently Asked Questions

What was the Civil War?
The war between the North and South (1861-1865). This is the answer for the citizenship test.

Why was it fought?
Primarily over slavery. Southern states wanted to preserve slavery; Northern states increasingly opposed it. States’ rights was also an issue, but mainly the right to maintain slavery.

Who won?
The Union (North) won. The Confederacy was defeated, slavery was abolished, and the Union was preserved.

How many people died?
About 620,000-750,000 soldiers, making it America’s deadliest war. More Americans died in the Civil War than in all other American wars combined.

What was the bloodiest battle?
Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) had the most total casualties—about 51,000. Antietam (September 17, 1862) was the bloodiest single day—about 23,000 casualties.

Did all Northerners oppose slavery?
No. While most opposed slavery’s expansion, many were indifferent or even supported it. Racial prejudice was common in the North. But Northern opposition to slavery grew during the war.

Did all Southerners own slaves?
No. Only about 25% of Southern white families owned enslaved people. Large slaveholders were a small minority. But slavery dominated Southern economy and society.

Could the South have won?
Unlikely. The North had more people, more industry, more railroads, and more resources. The South’s best hope was outlasting Northern will to fight, but this became impossible after Gettysburg and Vicksburg (1863).

What happened to Confederate soldiers after the war?
Most went home and were not punished. Confederate leaders, including Robert E. Lee and Jefferson Davis, were not executed. The goal was reconciliation, though this came at the expense of justice for freed people.

What should I memorize for the citizenship test?
The Civil War (or War Between the States) was the war between the North and South. Know it was fought over slavery (1861-1865), the Union (North) won, and slavery was abolished. This is sufficient for the test.